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Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

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• History
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• Life
r
• Ceremonies and Customs
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• Indian Legends
r
• Selected References
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About the Author

r Elizabeth H. “Babs” Godfrey,r a student and writer of Yosemite history.r Her husband was William C. Godfrey.r He wrote and illustratedr “Among the Big Trees in the Mariposa Grove”r forr Yosemite Nature Notes, in 1929.r He transferred to Crater Lake National Park, where her died of exposure Nov. 1929.r She moved back to Yosemite after his death andr worked as secretary for the Yosemite Museum.r Elizabeth Godfrey collected historical material on Yosemite for the Museumr and wrote articles forr Yosemite Nature Notes.r She was transferred to ther National Park Service Region Four Headquarters (San Francisco) in 1945.r She later married a Mr. Baker.r

Bibliographical Information

r Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today 1st ed.r by Elibabeth H. Godfrey (b. before 1941 - d. after 1951).r (1941; revised circa 1947-1950).r 28 pages. Illustrated. 24 cm.r Paper wrappers [cover image].r
r r Library of Congress call number E99.Y8 G6 1941.r Originally Published inr Yosemite Nature Notes, 20(7) (1941), pp. 49-72.r Subsequent revisions in 1951 and 1973 were made by othersr (not included here).r Revisions in printings before 1951 were trivialr (removal of foreword, mention of Ta-bu-ce death).r The 1951 and later editions were major rewrites.r

r
• r Original 1941 edition of Yosemite Indians [PDF]r /export/home/dano/htdocs/yosemite/library/yosemite_indiansr
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r Digitized by Dan Anderson, December 2004,r from copies at UCSD and SDSU libraries.r These files may be used for any non-commercial purpose,r provided this notice is left intact.r
r     —Dan Anderson, www.yosemite.ca.usr

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r Next: Lifer •r Contentsr

Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

r r r

r Cover illustration: Ta-bu-cer [Editor’s note: Maggie Howard—dea.],r for many years a familiar figure in Yosemite, shortly before herr death in 1947 at a probable age of more than 90 years.r This and other illustrations in thisr booklet are by Ralph Anderson, unless otherwise credited.r

YOSEMITE INDIANSr
r Yesterday and Todayr

r r By Elizabeth H. Godfreyr r

r FOREWORDr

r [Editor’s note:r the first printing of this book has the following foreword,r which was omitted in a latter printing.—dea.]r

r After looking over the Indian exhibit in the museum many park visitorsr desire a publication on the history, habits, and livlihood of the originalr inhabitans of this area. With a hope of supplying such a requirement at ar minimum cost, this special issue of Yosemite Nature Notes has been prepared.r It is in part a compilation of historical information obtained from variousr articles that have appeared from time to time inr Yosemite Nature Notesr andr other publications. Due credit must also be given James E. Cole, formerr Junior Park Naturalist, whose exhaustive notes on this subject were ofr considerable value. The help of M. E. Beatty, former Associate Park Naturalist,r under whose supervision the original edition of this booklet was preparedr should also be noted. The publication of this second edition was made possibler through the assistance of former Park Naturalist C. Frank Brockman.r

r THE STORY OF CHIEF TENAYAr

r Centuries before the advent of ther white man, Yosemite Valley is believedr to have been inhabited by Indians.r With the ravages of wars andr black sickness the Ahwahneeches, ar powerful tribe—and one of the lastr to occupy the “deep, grassy valley”r —became practically annihilatedr The few disheartened survivors leftr to affiliate with other neighboringr tribes.r

r [Editor’s note:r the correct meaning of Ahwahnee is “(gaping) mouth,” not “deep, grassy valley.” Seer “Origin of the Place Name Yosemite”—dea.]r

r After many years of abandonment,r a young and adventurous Indian byr the name of Tenaya, who claimedr to be a direct descendant of ther Chief of the Ahwahneeches, and whor had been born and raised amongr the Monos, decided to return to whatr he considered his homeland. Fromr the Monos, Piutes, and other tribes,r he persuaded remnants of his father’sr people to join him, and with ar band of approximately two hundredr he reoccupied the valley, namingr himself as chief. These Indians representedr a small part of the Interiorr California Miwoks, which in ancientr times numbered in the neighborhoodr of 9,000, and comprised a group ofr r r r r r closely related tribes occupying ther western foothills and lower slopes ofr the Sierra Nevada.r

r In accordance with Indian tradition,r Tenaya’s tribesmen were separatedr into two divisions-the “Coyote”r side and the “Grizzly Bear”r side. Outsiders eventually designatedr the whole tribe as “Yosemites,”r which means “Grizzly Bear.” Ther valley itself remained “Ahwahnee”r to the Indians, as it had been sor called by the earlier Ahwahneecher inhabitants.r

r [Editor’s note:r for the correct meaning of Yosemite, seer “Origin of the Place Name Yosemite”—dea.]r

r For a few score years Tenayar reigned supreme in “Ahwahnee.”r Then in his declining years came ther California gold rush. Wherever miningr activities flourished, Indian supremacyr quickly vanished. Drivenr from his home, the red man soughtr another dwelling place, only to ber routed out again and again with furtherr aggression of the whites. Hisr final destination was the Indian reservation.r

r Nearer and nearer came t h er greedy gold-seekers to Tenaya’s domain.r Such towns as Mariposa, Mt.r Bullion, and Coulterville sprang upr with suddenness when gold discoveriesr drew throngs of white men tor their vicinities. While Indians of ther foothills made treaties with ther whites, many mountain Indians includingr the Yosemites resented theirr intrusion. In retaliation and in a futiler effort to discourage the whiter men from further usurping theirr r r

r r r r r Miniature Indian Village Diarama—Indian Room. Yosemite Museumr r

r THE MARIPOSA BATTALIONr

r In March, 1851, under the authorityr of Governor McDougal, ther Mariposa Battalion was organized tor subdue the Yosemites and theirr neighboring tribes, and to conveyr them to the Fresno River Reservationr where Indians of the San Joaquin Valleyr and the coast had alreadyr been established by ther Indian Commissioners.r

r James D. Savage, a trader, wasr elected major of the battalion. Savager had a personal grudge to settler The previous December, his Fresnor River store had been attacked by ther Indians and destroyed. The two menr in charge had been ruthlessly murdered.r Simultaneously, his Mariposar Creek Station had been ravagedr and three white men killed. Beingr thoroughly convinced that the Yosemitesr were the ringleaders in theser outrages, Savage vowed he wouldr rout them out to the last Indian fromr their stronghold where they believedr themselves secure, and would bringr them to submission either by treatyr or force of arms.r

r After the Mariposa Battalion hadr surprised and captured an Indianr rancheria on the South Fork of ther Merced River at what is now calledr Wawona, Savage sent an Indianr messenger ahead to demand Tenayar to surrender, emphasizing that itr would be to the advantage of ther r Yosemites to immediately sign ar treaty with the Indian Commissionersr to quitclaim their lands, and tor leave for the reservation on ther Fresno River without resistance.r

r r r r r Francisco, an early day Yosemite in dancer r costume. (Boysen photo)r r r r r [Editor’s note:r Francisco Georgley, a Chowchilla Indian—DEA]r r r

r Upon Tenaya’s advice, the Yosemitesr agreed to make treaty, and ther old chief himself went on ahead tor report to Savage that his peopler were coming in. Savage waitedr three days for the fulfillment of Tenaya’sr promise, and then suspectingr him of deceit, took part of his companyr and set out toward the valleyr r r r with Tenaya acting as guide. Followingr along an old Indian trail inr the approximate location of the presentr Wawona Road, they came mid-wayr upon a scattered line of seventy-twor Indians. There were oldr squaws, younger women with papoosesr on their backs, small children,r but no braves. All were wearyr from the long march over andr through snow several feet deep. Althoughr Tenaya assured Savage thatr this group represented his entirer tribe, Savage was still suspicious.r He sent Tenaya back to the Southr Fork Camp with the Indians, whiler he and his soldiers went on in searchr for the rest of the Yosemites.r

r YOSEMITE VALLEY ENTEREDr

r Through Savage’s grim determinationr to rout out the Yosemites fromr their mountain refuge, Yosemite Valleyr was first entered by him and hisr small company of soldiers on Marchr 21, 1851.*r

r Emerging from the forest, the detachmentr suddenly came out on ar clearing—old Inspiration Point. Revealedr in panorama before theirr eyes was Tenaya’s secret fortress—r a gem of a valley, river-ribboned, inr a setting of sheer, precipitous, granite cliffs,r domes, and spires of surpassingr grandeur. What they witnessedr had been wrought by millionsr of years of geologic changes,r but history bears record that onlyr one of these rough mountaineers,r r Dr. L. H. Bunnell,r was emotionally stirredr by the awe-inspiring view. Ther thought uppermost was to blot outr the Indians who claimed this valleyr as their own.r

r That night while Savage and hisr men chatted around a campfire nearr Bridalveil Fall,r Dr. Bunnell,r who wasr thrilled with the rare scenic value ofr the valley, suggested that it be calledr “Yosemite,” after the Indians whor were being driven out. Thus Yosemite Valleyr was entered for the firstr time by white men and named ther same day.r

r The following day Savage and hisr men searched the valley floor inr vain; they scouted up Tenaya Creekr r

r (*) Actual discovery of Yosemite Valley occurred at an earlier date. In the fall of 1833 a partyr of approximately 40 men, under the leadership of Joseph Reddeford Walker, passed through ther area now included in Yosemite National Park. This journey was memorable in that it representedr one of the first crossings of the Sierra Nevada. Members of the Walker party were thus ther first white men to enter the area now included in Yosemite National Park.r

r Unfamiliarity with the region, its rugged terrain, and the season’s lateness combined tor make their journey through this region a long and extremely arduous one. Records indicater that members of this group, in scouting for a suitable westward route through the mountains,r first saw the Valley from a point on the north rim. However, the Walker party never enteredr the Valley and their discovery made no great impression upon them. Thus this fact was notr fully substantiated until comparatively recent years. In consequence, the existence of Yosemiter Valley was generally unknown in 1851 when it was first entered by the Mariposa Battalion,r although certain Indians had hinted of the presence of a formidable mountain refuge on severalr occasions co-incident with the Indian troubles of that period. (Seer r “Narrative and Adventures ofr Zenas Leonard,[”]r edited by M. M. Quaife, Lakeside Press, Chicago, 1934; also Walker’s Discoveryr of Yosemite, Francis P. Farquhar, Sierra Club Bulletin, Vol. XXVII, No. 4, August 1942),r

[Editor’s note:r today historians generally believe the Walker party looked down The Cascades,r which are just west of Yosemite Valley, instead of Yosemite Valley itself.—dea]r

r r r r r

r Savage soothed his disappointmentr and failure by burning ther dwellings, large caches of acornsr and other provisions the Indians hadr left behind.r

r Although they were the first tor enter Yosemite Valley, and were responsibler for its name, this expeditionr of the Mariposa Battalion did not accomplishr its purpose: i.e., to exterminater the Indians. Through carelessnessr of the guards in charge,r tricky Chief Tenaya and his entirer r r r people were able to delay their relegationr on the Fresno River Reservationr by escaping during the night.r

r r r r r Three Brothers, named for sons of Chief Tenayar r

r SECOND EXPEDITION TOr YOSEMITEr

r The second expedition against ther Yosemites took place in May, 1851,r under command of Captain Johnr Boling, whose company was a partr of the Mariposa Battalion.r

r At the outset, five Yosemites werer captured, three of whom were Chiefr Tenaya’s sons. Of these captives,r Captain Boling released one of Tenaya’sr sons and his son-in-law, underr promise that they would bring in ther old chief so that treaty might ber made; the other three were held asr hostages.r

r The soldiers in Captain Boling’sr camp practiced archery with ther three remaining prisoners, and oner of the captives shot his arrow far beyondr the others. He was allowed tor search for it, but the opportunity forr freedom was so overpowering thatr he took a chance and darted off. Ther other two prisoners were then tiedr back to back and fastened to a tree.r Later they were able to unfasten ther ropes that bound them, but when attemptingr to slip off, the guard discoveredr them and fired. Tenaya’sr youngest son was killed; the otherr Indian managed to escape intor Indian Canyon.r

r A short time after this unfortunater episode, Tenaya entered Boling’sr camp to surrender, and great sorrowr confronted him. Before him on ther ground lay the lifeless form of oner very dear to his heart—his youngestr and most beloved son. Captain Boling’sr regret did not in any way alleviater Tenaya’s grief. He stood in repressedr anguish, facing not only ther death of his son, but the end of hisr liberty and happiness. A few daysr passed, and when Tenaya’s peopler failed to join him in surrender, he toor attempted escape, but was caughtr by Captain Boling just as he wasr about to plunge into the river. In ar state of utter failure, mental anguish,r and grief he piteously beggedr Captain Boling to kill him as he hadr killed his son, but warned him thatr his spirit would return to torment ther white man.r

r Captain Boling continued his pursuitr of the remainder of the Yosemitesr into the snow-clad high country,r and with his soldiers surprised themr as they were encamped on ther shores of Tenaya Lake. The Indians,r realizing that resistance was futile,r surrendered. Records state that sor anxious was Captain Boling to advancer upon the Indians when theirr camp was discovered that he did notr allow his soldiers sufficient time tor don their uniforms. They were givenr r r r the command to march four milesr over and through ten feet of snowr stripped to their red flannelr underwear.r

r In 1928,r oldr r Maria Lebrado,r ther last of Tenaya’s people, describedr this incident as seeing “lots of red.”r

r TENAYA’S LAST DAYSr

r Subsequent to the success of ther second Yosemite expedition Tenayar and his people were assigned to ther Fresno River Indian Reservationr along with many other subduedr tribes. Here, Tenaya chafed miserablyr under restraints placed uponr him, and was unable to adapt himselfr to his new environment. Afterr constant appeals, the Indian Commissionersr permitted him to returnr to Yosemite Valley under promiser that he would provoke no more trouble.r r Tenaya was soon joined in hisr old stamping grounds by other Indiansr of his tribe who managed to escaper from the reservation. Ther winters of 1851 and 1852 passed andr Tenaya kept his promise to the commissionersr by causing no disturbances.r In May 1852, a party of eightr prospectors fearlessly entered Yosemiter Valley with no idea of troubler with what they supposed werer peaceable Indians. To their utterr horror and astonishment the Yosemitesr made an unexpected and viciousr attack. Two of their number werer brutally murdered and the othersr barely escaped with their lives.r

r As the Mariposa Battalion hadr been disbanded, a detachment of ther regular army was immediately sentr into the valley from Fort Miller tor forestall further trouble. Five Indiansr r r r

r r r r r Tenaya Lake, named for Chief Tenaya, last chief of the Yosemite.r r

r In the late summer of 1853, oldr Chief Tenaya and his small groupr of followers returned to Yosemiter Valley for the last time. Having nor horses of their own for meat, theyr treacherously stole a number belongingr to the Monos. When this theftr was discovered by the owners, theyr at once made ready to pursue Tenaya,r and to administer revenge forr this gross expression of ingratitude.r While Tenaya and his band satr around a campfire enjoying a feast,r the Monos suddenly swept downr upon them. One Mono Indian hurledr a rock directly at Tenaya’s head,r which crushed his skull. For the oldr chief, who had escaped death sor many times, there were final darknessr and oblivion. The Monos killedr all of Tenaya’s followers, except ar few women and children, one ofr whom was Maria Lebrado. In 1928,r Dr. Carl P. Russell, at that timer Yosemite’s Park Naturalist, interviewedr aged Maria Lebrado as ther only living survivor of Tenaya’sr people.r

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Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

r FOODr

r Although the Yosemite Indiansr had neither knowledge of cultivationr nor a market place to buy provisions,r r r

r r r r r Shelling acorns in advance of preparing an mealr r r r r [Editor’s note: Ta-bu-ce (Maggie Howard)—dea.]r r r

r Gathering the acorns, storing themr in the chuck-ah granary, along withr the complicated preparation of acornr mush and bread constituted a laboriousr and lengthy task that the Indianr woman accepted as a matter ofr routine.r

r The chuck-ahs in the Museum Gardenr “Indian Village” constructed byr Maggie (Ta-bu-ce) are typical of ther granaries employed for storing ther acorns. At first glance these huge,r cylindrical, basket-like affairs remindr one of big, clumsy nests builtr by some giant bird. Four slenderr poles of Incense Cedar about eightr feet high arranged in a square, andr a center log or rock two feet highr for the bottom of the chuck-ah, constituter the frame support. The basket-liker interior is of interwovenr branches of deer brush (Ceanothus)r tied at the ends with willow stemsr and fastened together with wildr grapevine. This is lined with dryr pine needles and wormwood. Ther latter supposedly discourages the invasionr of insects and rodents, andr grows abundantly in the museum region.r After the chuck-ah has beenr filled with acorns gathered in ther r r r

r r r r r Chuck-ah, used for acorn storager r Photo by C. A. Harwellr r r r r [Editor’s note: Ta-bu-ce (Maggie Howard)—dea.]r r r

r Method of Preparing Acorn Mush,r Bread and Pattiesr

r After cracking and shelling ther acorns, the spoiled meats were removed,r and the kernels pounded intor fine yellow meal. Mortar holes inr granite are found at every villager site. In order to remove the bitterr tasting tannin from the meal, leachingr was required. In this process ther r r r r r acorn meal was first placed in a previouslyr prepared shallow, hard-packedr sand basin. At short intervalsr water was poured over the mixture,r and allowed to seep through ther sand. About seven applications ofr water were necessary to remove ther tannin—the last three beingr increasingly warm.r

r Three products were obtainedr from the leaching according to ther fineness of the meal: the fine mealr served for gruel or thin soup; ther middle product for mush, and fromr the coarser material small pattiesr were formed, and baked on hot, flatr rocks.r

r The mush was cooked in a larger cooking basket, using the proportionr of two quarts of newly leachedr acorn meal to six or seven quarts ofr boiling water. Heat was providedr for both boiling the water and cookingr the mush by gently lowering hotr stones into a large cooking basketr by means of wooden tongs. Whenr the mush was done, the stones werer removed with the tongs and droppedr into cold water, so that the mush adheringr to them might congeal andr when cool be peeled off and eaten.r

r Insectsr

r One of the most important articlesr of trade between the Monos and ther Yosemites was the insect delicacyr Ka-cha'-vee, which came from ther saline waters of Mono Lake in ther form of a peculiar insect pupae,r breeding there in countless numbers.r The waves cast on the shore greatr windrows, composed of millions ofr bodies of these undeveloped speciesr of fly. The squaws scooped up ther pupae into large baskets, and whenr the smelly mass was thoroughly dry,r they were rubbed to remove skins.r After further drying, they werer packed for winter use. The finalr product had a flavor similar tor shrimp, but was not nearly so strong.r

r r r r r Ka-cha-vee, an insect food (x7)r r (a) Pupa, used by the Indiansr r (b) The Adult Fly (Ephydra hians)r r

r r Another prized commercial foodr product which the Monos tradedr with the Yosemites were the caterpillarsr of the Pandora moth, betterr known in the Indian tongue as Peaggi.r These were collected in ther Jeffrey Pine forests just east ofr Yosemite National Park. At a certainr time known to the Monos, the caterpillarsr left the trees to enter ther ground to form pupal cases, andr were trapped in shallow trenchesr dug in loose soil around the trees.r The squaws visited these trenches atr intervals and collected the caterpillarsr that had accumulated there.r They were then dried and storedr r r r away for cooking into stew. Grasshoppersr and larvae of yellow jacketsr were also used as food, and werer roasted in an earthen oven.r

r Greensr

r Miner’s Lettuce was eaten raw.r Sometimes red ants were allowed tor run over the leaves to flavor themr with formic acid, which gave anr r r

r r r r r Miner’s Lettucer r

r Bulbsr

r Bulbs were so important a part ofr the diet of the Yosemite Indians thatr they were one of a group of tribesr described as “Digger” Indians byr early California settlers.r

r Bulbs that made good eatingr were: Squaw Root, the various brodiaeas,r especially bulbs of ther Harvest Brodiaea, and Camass. Bulbsr were baked in an earthen oven inr the ground. First a small pit wasr dug. A layer of hot stones werer placed in the bottom of it, andr covered with leaves. A layer of bulbsr came next, then alternate layers ofr leaves, stones, leaves and bulbsr until the pit was filled. Over the top,r a layer of earth sealed the oven, andr a fire was built over it.. The bulbsr were allowed to bake all night, orr for a period of about twelve hours.r

r Fish and Gamer

r Fresh meat was usually cooked byr broiling on hot coals, roasted beforer the fire, or in the earthen oven. Forr winter use meat was dried in long,r thin strips by either hanging it onr trees or bushes to expose to the airr and sunlight, or by curing on ar rack about eighteen inches above ar small fire. Squirrels, rabbits andr fish were roasted directly on coals,r or in hot ashes, either whole orr drawn. In the latter case, animal,r bird or fish were stuffed with hotr coals to make cooking more rapid.r

r Mushroomsr

r Mushrooms were in season duringr April or May. Shredded and driedr they were boiled and eaten withr r r r r mineral salt, or ground in a mortarr and cooked as soup.r

r Berriesr

r Manzanita berries, which arer smooth-skinned and of an agreeabler acid flavor, were eaten raw, or mader into cider for drinking and mixingr with other food preparations. Inr making cider, the berries werer crushed with a rock in a basket intor a coarse pulp through which a smallr quantity of water was allowed tor seep and drip into a watertightr basket beneath. As the water seepedr through the pulp, it extracted somer of the berry flavor.r

r Other common berries used asr food were wild raspberries, thimbler berries, wild strawberries, currants,r gooseberries, squaw berries, andr wild cherries.r

r EATINGr

r At meal time the family gatheredr around the basket of acorn mush orr other viands, and using the twor front fingers for a spoon, all dippedr into the same basket. Sometimes ar single finger was twisted aroundr and around in the mush, in the samer manner that Pacific Islanders eatr poi, and piloted to the mouth.r

r Manzanita cider, which served asr an appetizer, was enjoyed by dippingr into the beverage a small stickr with several short feathers fastenedr to one end, and then sucking ther drink off the feathers. A small,r tightly-woven basket, known as ar “dipper,” was also used for drinkingr water or manzanita cider.r Game was torn limb from limbr from the roasted animal, and dividedr among members of the family.r

r BASKETRYr

r Willow, squaw bush, red-bud,r tule-root, red strips of bark fromr Creek Dogwood, maiden-hair fern,r brake fern, wire bunch grass, andr other native plants served the Indianr woman as material for the many basketsr needed to properly perform herr domestic tasks. She knew the namesr of all the basket material plants,r their locations, and the proper timer for gathering them as well as anyr botanist.r

r After gathering the materials, ar further knowledge of how to preparer them for weaving was necessary.r They had to be peeled, trimmed tor correct width, fineness and length,r soaked in cold water, boiled or buriedr in mud, according to her knowledger of the treatment required.r

r In size, shape, and weave eachr basket was designed to serve a specialr purpose. A large conicalr shaped basket was required for carryingr heavy burdens, such asr acorns, and was known as the burdenr basket. Such baskets were supportedr on the back from a strapr passing over the wearer’s forehead.r There was a large, deep familyr mushbowl basket around which ther family gathered to dip in the acornr mush; a small, closely-woven basketr for use in serving food; a tightlyr woven disc-shaped basket for winnowingr wild oats and other seedr plants; a seed beater for use in beatingr r r r seeds into a carrying basket; ar dipper basket, which was small andr tightly woven for drinking water orr manzanita cider; a cradle or openworkr basketry — sometimes coveredr with deer skin for carrying the papoose;r special baskets for use inr wedding and dance ceremonies, andr basket weirs for catching fish.r

r The twining and coiling methodsr were used chiefly by Yosemite Indianr women in weaving baskets. Inr the twined basket, the heavy foundationr is vertical from the center tor the rim, and the woof is of lighterr material. In the coiled basket, ther heavy foundation is laid in horizontalr coils around the basket with ther filling running spirally around heavyr twigs. Throughout the whole Miwokr tribes, practically the only twinedr baskets made were the burden basket,r the triangular scoop-shapedr basket for winnowing, the ellipticalr seed beater, and the baby carrierr (hickey). An application of soaproot,r which hardens in a thin, brittler sheet, was used to make the burdenr baskets seed-tight. A scrubbingr brush for cleaning the cooking basketr was also made of fibers from ther dry, outer layers of the soaproot. Inr weaving the coiled basket, an awl,r made chiefly from the bone of ar deer, was employed.r

r Roots of the brake fern were boiledr in order to obtain the black materialr used in designs; red-bud was employedr for the red color.r

r Considering that the Indian womanr worked entirely without writtenr rules, the design, color, and ther mathematical accuracy of her basketsr in entirety represent a work ofr art. Before commencing a basketr she had to know exactly where tor r r r

r r r r r Ta-bu-ce (Maggie Howard) and baskets. Boysen photor r

r r r r r Ta-bu-ce (Maggie Howard) gathering acorns during Autumnr r

r WEAPONSr

r The bow and arrow was the principalr weapon for both hunting andr warfare. The weapon in the hand ofr a good marksman was dangerous atr two hundred yards and fatal at fiftyr yards.r

r In constructing his bow and arrow,r the Indian brave displayed as greatr skill as did the Indian woman in ther weaving of her baskets. Incense Cedarr and California Nutmeg furnishedr the wood for the bow. If the formerr was used, it was necessary to treat itr several days with deer marrow tor prevent brittleness when dry. Ther bow was three or four feet long, sinewr backed, and had recurved ends.r Glue used for applying the sinewr to the back of the bow was mader by boiling deer and horse bones andr combining the product with pitch.r

r Arrows for large game were in twor parts. The detachable foreshaft remainedr in the wound-preventing itr from closing and thus hastening ther animal’s death from loss of blood.r Arrow shafts were made of syringar or wild rose bush by removing ther bark, stripping and trimming ther pieces to an even thickness, andr then straightening them with stoner tools. Finally, the shafts were polishedr with scouring rush. Feathersr and obsidian arrows were then attachedr to the shaft, each feather beingr split down the middle, and fourr half feathers attached to each shaftr with wrapping. Obsidian arrowr heads were fitted into a slot in ther end of the shaft, and held in placer by sinew wrapping and pitch.r

r r r r r Arrow points were fashioned from obsidian (volcanic glass) by first striking large piece withr r hammerstone (left) to obtain section of suitable size. This was then shaped with a tool made from a deer antlerr r (right).r r

r r r r r Arrow point was attached to shaft by user r of sinewr r

r The plain bow without sinew backingr sufficed for hunting small gamer at relatively close range. The bestr bow strings were made of twistedr sinew.r

r Obsidian (volcanic glass) for ther arrow heads was obtained fromr quarries in the Mono or Owens Valleyr region. It was a valuable trader article of the Mono Piutes, who periodicallyr visited the Yosemite Valley.r The Yosemites themselves occasionallyr made journeys across ther Sierra for obsidian. Pieces of obsidianr suitable for working into toolsr were picked up or broken from larger masses of obsidian with crude stoner hammers. These pieces were thenr carried over the mountains tor Yosemite in deer skin sacks.r

r Small pieces suitable for workingr into arrow points were broken fromr a large rock of obsidian by strikingr it sharply and adroitly with a hammerstone.r The obsidian block wasr held in the left hand, and ther hammerstone in the right hand.r

r The small pieces were roughlyr r shaped with an antler tool andr finished with a small antler implement.r With the obsidian grasped in ther palm of the left hand, which wasr protected by a buckskin pad,r pressure was exerted on it with the sharpr end of the antler tool.r

r FISHING AND HUNTINGr

r Deer were stalked by hunters disguisedr in deer skins. By mimicing ther actions of the deer, a hunter couldr approach near enough to make ar successful shot. When many deerr were desired, they were driven pastr ambushed Indians, or into traps orr nets.r

r r r r r Fish spearr r

r Fish were speared with a woodenr shaft fitted with a bone point. Oner end of a small cord was attached tor the point and the other held in ther fisherman’s hand. The struggles ofr the impaled fish freed the point fromr the shaft, and the fish was landedr by pulling the cord.r

r Fish were also caught with weirr traps made of long willow sproutsr woven together and closed at ther pointed lower end. These were ingeniouslyr placed in an especiallyr r r r constructed dam, and elevatedr above the surface of the water belowr the dam, so that in going downr stream the fish ran into this trap andr found themselves at the lower endr of it, and out of the water.r

r When the water was low in summer,r the Indians stupified the fishr with pulverized soap-root, mixedr with soil and water. This was rubbedr on rocks out in the stream whichr roiled the water, and made it foamy.r The effect on the fish was a form ofr strangulation, which caused them tor rise to the surface where they couldr be easily captured by the Indiansr in their scoop baskets.r

r BONE AND ANTLER IMPLEMENTSr

r Bones and antlers were used byr the Indians in making various toolsr and implements. From certain bonesr cf the deer, the awl was made forr weaving of coiled basketry; limbr bones of the Jackrabbit and Sierrar Grouse served for fashioning whistlesr for the ceremonial dances; pointsr of antler were used for the shapingr of flint and obsidian points andr blades; an antler implement wasr used for extracting acorns stored byr woodpeckers; split deer leg bone affordedr scrapers for use in workingr down a bow, or in removing hairr from deer hide, etc.r

r CLOTHINGr

r Skin from wild animals furnishedr he only available means of clothing.r In summer the Indian man worer nothing but a loin cloth of buckskin;r the Indian woman a buckskin skirt,r reaching from waist to knees.r Children went unclothed in warmr weather until about ten years old.r r r r

r r r r r Typical summer clothingr r (photo from models in Yosemite museum)r r

r The moccasin, of course, was ther only style of footwear, and this wasr only worn in cold weather, or forr rough-country trips. Made of buckskin,r it was fashioned in one piece,r and lined with shredded cedar bark.r It was seamed up the heel and ther front, using milkweed fiber thread.r Over-lapping pieces were boundr around the ankles.r

r At the mourning and dance ceremonials,r the Indian man wore ar head-dress made of magpie feathersr and bound with sinews; with thisr was worn a head-band made of tailr feathers from the red-shafted flicker.r r r r

r r r r r Typical dwelling or u-ma-cha. Mrs. Lucy Telles with large storage basket in foregroundr r r r r [Editor’s note:r Lucy Telles, aka Pa-ma-has—DEA]r r r

r HAIRr

r Adults wore the hair long, oftenr to the waist, either flowing loosely,r or caught at the back of the neckr with a feather rope or boa. Hair wasr only cut as a symbol of mourning andr this was accomplished by whackingr it off with an obsidian knife. In ther care of the hair, the soaproot wasr used for a shampoo, and was supposedr to promote luxuriant growth.r The fibers of this same plant sufficedr for a hair brush. In the absencer of the modern barber and safetyr razor, the Indian man permitted hisr heavy beard to grow to a fair size,r or plucked it. Flowers and feathersr were worn in the hair as ornaments.r

r SHELTERr

r The typical Yosemite dwelling wasr the conical u-ma-cha. This was constructedr by placing a few poles tenr or twelve feet long in the groundr around an area twelve feet in diameterr with the tops of the poles inclinedr together. Over this frameworkr slabs of Incense Cedar bark werer piled. The u-ma-cha was easilyr built, fairly waterproof, and readilyr kept warm. The entrance on ther south could be easily closed with ar portable door. There was also anr opening at the top to allow smoker to escape from a fire kindled in ther middle of the dwelling. A single oner of these could house a family of six,r with all their worldly possessions,r including the dog.r

r In the summer season the Indiansr lived outside in brush arbors, andr the u-ma-cha was then used as ar storehouse. Other Yosemite structuresr were large, earth-coveredr round houses for ceremonies, andr some small, earth-covered sweatr houses for cleanliness and curativer uses.r

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Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

r CEREMONIES AND CUSTOMSr

r The more than thirty individualr villages and camp sites on the floorr of Yosemite Valley were sharply divided into two classes in respect tor the river, in accordance with the Miwokr principle of totematic division;r i.e., the Indians classified everythingr in nature as belonging to either ther land or to the water side. The Grizzlyr Bear was the head of the land side;r the Coyote the head of the waterr side. This division included not onlyr the Indians themselves, but all otherr objects including even the stars. Itr was the custom of the man to alwaysr marry into the opposite division. Inr this manner in-breeding was kept tor a minimum. Thus members of ther Grizzly Bear moiety were assignedr to the north side of the Merced River,r and members of the Coyoter moiety to the south side.r

r As stated previously, it is believedr by some authorities that the namer “Yosemite” which means “full-grownr Grizzly Bear,” later came to be appliedr by outsiders to all of Tenaya’sr people rather than to only ther Grizzly Bear moiety on the north side ofr the river.r

r MEDICINE MENr

r When an Indian fell ill, a shamanr or medicine man was called to treatr him. This Indian doctor, who wasr believed to have the powers of ar clairvoyant, would dance, sing, andr manipulate the patient. He then proceededr to suck the part of the bodyr afflicted with pain, as a means ofr removing some religious taboo, or tor dislodge a foreign object that hadr been placed there by a witch orr wizard. Upon completion of thisr treatment, he would show the patientr and relatives concerned a fewr hairs, a dead insect, or other foreignr object to prove that he had beenr successful in removing the trouble.r The psychological effect upon ther patient when shown that the causer of his agony had been removed wasr most effective, and the relatives werer satisfied that in a few days ther patient would be well.r

r The Indians had great faith in ther medicine man, but if he was unluckyr enough to lose several patients,r it behooved him to be concernedr about his own life. The relativesr of the deceased patients laidr ever in wait for him in ambush, andr unless he was able to escape tor another locality, he was eventuallyr murdered.r

r DEATH AND MOURNINGr

r Cremation among the Indians wasr a common practice to liberate ther spirit of the dead. To burn all of ther belongings of the deceased at ther cremation, excepting a few that werer reserved for the annual mourningr anniversary, was the usual procedure.r All the mourners while dancingr r or crying around the cremation fire,r threw some gift into the flames as cmr offering of respect. When the bodyr was consumed, the remains werer gathered up and buried.r

r A widow cut her hair short withr an obsidian knife, or burned it off.r As a further symbol of grief, sher smeared her face over with a weirdr ointment made of pitch and somer of the ashes of her departed husband.r Other near female relativesr were also expected to so anointr themselves. This hideous mixturer would sometimes cling to the facer and clothing for six months, or evenr throughout the whole year of mourning,r since it was disrespectful tor wash it off.r

r In the late summer or autumn ofr each year, the Indians rememberedr their dead with a mourning ceremony.r For several nights there werer weeping, wailing, and singingr around a campfire. At dawn on ther last day of the ceremony, the mournersr threw food into the fire for ther spirits of their dead. Those who hadr lost loved ones during the year, fedr the fire with the remainder of ther deceased’s belongings, which hadr been saved from the cremation ceremony.r As a symbol that the periodr of grief and its restrictions were over,r the mourners cleansed themselvesr with water.r

r CEREMONY OF THANKSGIVINGr

r The Indians also celebrated theirr own Thanksgiving—an acorn celebrationr as a symbol of gratituder to the “Coyote Man,” an importantr diety of Miwok Indian mythology.r r r r r

r r r r r Lee-mee (Chris Brown) wearing ceremonial dance costumer r

r YOSEMITE INDIANS TODAYr

r So far as is known, there are nor full-blood Yosemites alive today. Ther Indians living in Yosemite are ofr mixed blood through inter-marriager with other tribes and races, mainlyr white and Mexican. Their mode ofr living is very similar to that of ther whites in that they drive their ownr automobiles, have washing machines,r radios, sewing machines, andr most of the modern comforts andr conveniences of civilized life.r

r r r r r Indian acorn-foodr r

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Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

INDIAN LEGENDS

r Living close to nature as did the Indians, In constant close relationshipr with animals, plants, and other natural features, it is easy to understand howr their religion, their superstitions, and their legends should center around ther great cliffs and spires, the waterfalls, animals, and even the winds whichr they knew in their daily existence. As is characteristic of primitive peoplesr without a written alphabet, the legends of the Yosemite Indians were handedr down by word of mouth, from generation to generation. It is reasonable tor assume that elaborations developed with the passing of time. The threer legends which follow tell of the origin of several of the most beautiful featuresr of Yosemite Valley—El Capitan, the massive cliff at the lower end of ther valley; the Lost Arrow, a spectacular shaft of rock jutting out from the cliffr just to the east of Yosemite Falls; and Half Dome, Royal Arches, Washingtonr Column, and Basket Dome at the upper end of the valley.r

r r

r LEGEND OF EL CAPITANr

r Long, long ago there lived in ther Valley of Ah-wahnee two cub bears.r One hot day they slipped away fromr their mother and went down to ther river for a swim. When they camer out of the water, they were so tiredr that they lay down to rest on anr immense, flat boulder, and fell fastr asleep. While they slumbered, ther huge rock began to slowly rise untilr at length it towered into the bluer sky far above the tree-tops, andr wooly, white clouds fell over ther sleeping cubs like fleecy coverlets.r

r In vain did the distracted motherr bear search for her two cubs, andr although she questioned every animalr in the valley, not one could giver her a clue as to what had happenedr to them. At last To-tah-kan, ther sharp-eyed crane, discovered themr still asleep on top of the great rock.r Then the mother bear became morer anxious than ever lest her cubsr should awaken, and feel so frightenedr upon finding themselves upr r near the blue sky that they wouldr jump off and be killed.r

r All the other animals in the valleyr felt very sorry for the mother bearr and promised to help rescue ther cubs. Gathering together, each attemptedr

r r r r r El Capitanr r

r to climb the great rock, butr it was as slippery as glass, and theirr feet would not hold. Little fieldr mouse climbed two feet, and becamer frightened; the rat fell backward andr lost hold after three feet; the fox wentr a bit higher, but it was no use. Ther larger animals could not do muchr better, although they tried so hardr that to this day one can see the darkr scratches of their feet at the baser of the rockr

r When all had given up, alongr came the tiny measuring worm.r

r “I believe I can climb up to ther top and bring down the cubs,” itr courageously announced.r

r Of course, the other animals allr sneered and made sport of this boastr from one of the most insignificant ofr their number, but the measuringr worm paid no attention to their insultsr and immediately began ther perilous ascent.r “Too-tack, too-tack, To-to-kon-oo-lah,”r it chanted, andr surely enough its feet clung even tor that polished surface. Higher andr higher it went, until the animals belowr began to realize that the measuringr worm was not so stupid afterr all. Midway the great rock flared,r and the measuring worm clung at ar dizzy height only by its front feet.r

r Continuing to chant its song, ther frightened measuring worm managedr to twist its body and to take ar zig-zag course, which made ther climb a great deal longer, but muchr safer. Weak and exhausted it at lastr reached the top of the great rock,r and in some miraculous mannerr awakened the cubs and guidedr them safely down to their grief-strickenr mother. Of course, the wholer r animal kingdom was delighted andr overjoyed with the return of the cubsr and the praises of the measuringr worm were loudly sung by all. Asr a token of honor the animals decidedr to name the great rockr “To-to-kon-lah” in honor of ther measuring worm.r

r LEGEND OF THE LOST ARROWr

r [Editor’s note:r this “legend” “is almost certainly fictitious”r according to NPS Ethnologist Craig D. Bates.r It was first printed in Hutchingsr In the Heart of the Sierras (1888)r —dea.]r

r Tee-hee-neh, a beautiful Indianr maid, was betrothed to Kos-soo-kah,r a young brave, who was fearlessr and bold with his spear and bow.r At dawn on the day before theirr marriage, Kos-soo-kah made readyr with other strong braves to go forthr into the mountains to hunt bear,r deer, rabbit and grouse for the weddingr feast. Before leaving, he slippedr away from the other hunters to meetr Tee-hee-neh, his bride, who wasr waiting nearby.r

r As they parted Kos-soo-kah said,r “We go to hunt now, but at the endr of the day, I will shoot an arrowr from the cliff between Cho-look, ther high fall, and Le-hamite, the Canyonr of the Arrow-wood, and by the numberr of feathers you will know whatr kill has been made.”r

r Tee-hee-neh happily assisted ther Indian women in preparing acornr bread and other food for the marriager celebration until the appointedr time when she was to wait at ther foot of the high fall for the arrowr message from Kos-soo-kah. Hourr after hour she waited until graduallyr the joy she had known was replacedr r r r r r

r r r r r Lost Arrowr r

r “Kos-soo-kah,” she called againr and again, but the only answer wasr the faint echoing of her own voice.r Breathless, frightened, and her heartr heavy with a dreaded fear that Kossoo-kahr had met with harm, she atr last reached the summit. Seeing footprintsr in the direction of the cliff,r she moved toward the edge in bewilderedr alarm, not for her own safety,r but for what she might behold.r As she leaned over and lookedr down, she gave a piercing cry ofr despair, for in the starlight she beheldr the still form of her loved oner r lying on a ledge below with ther spent bow in his hand. She nowr remembered that at the hour of sunsetr while she stood waiting forr Kos-soo-kah’s arrow to fall she had heardr the distant, thunder-like rumble of ar rock slide. Her despair was almostr overwhelming as she realized thatr while her faithful Kos-soo-kah stoodr on the edge of the cliff to draw hisr bow, he had been caught in the unexpectedr slide of earth that hadr hurled him to his doom.r

r A faint hope stirred in Tee-hee-neh’sr heart. Perhaps Kos-soo-kahr was still alive. To summon assistancer as quickly as possible, she franticallyr collected cones and deadr limbs to light a signal fire for urgentr help. Although numbed with grief,r she kept the fire bright and high forr several hours before men from ther valley and other braves who werer returning from the hunt in the highr country were able to reach her.r Quickly, the braves made a poler from lengths of tamarack and fastenedr them securely with thongs ofr hide from the deer that had beenr killed for the marriage feast. Althoughr exhausted, Tee-hee-neh wasr the first to descend to the ledger where Kos-soo-kah lay. As she kneltr beside him and listened far breath,r her own heartbeat almost stopped,r for the brave Kos-soo-kah was coldr and still. Without a murmur, she motionedr for the men above to lift her.r

r Tee-hee-neh’s wedding day hadr dawned when the braves were atr last successful in raising the body ofr Kos-soo-kah to the top of the cliffr where the others waited. As his lifelessr r r r form was placed gently on ther ground, Tee-hee-neh knelt besider him, and with tears streaming downr her cheeks she repeated his namer over and over, as though by doingr so she could call him back to her.r Suddenly she fell forward on herr dear one’s breast, and her spirit toor departed to join that of Kos-soo-kahr in the land that knows no partings.r

r With great wailing and mourningr the two lovers and all their belongingsr were placed for cremation onr the funeral pyre in accordance withr the burial custom. In Kos-soo-kah’sr hand was the fatal bow, but ther arrow had been lost forever. In itsr stead the spirits lodged a pointedr column of rock in the cliff betweenr Cho-look, the high fall, and Le-ham-ite,r the canyon of Arrow-wood inr memory of the faithful Kos-soo-kahr who met his death in keeping ar promise to Tee-hee-neh. Ever sincer this rock has been known asr Hum-moo, the Lost Arrow.r

r LEGEND OF HALF DOMEr

r Many, many generations ago,r long before the Gods had completedr the fashioning of the magnificentr cliffs in the Valley of Ahwahnee,r there dwelt far off in arid plains anr Indian woman by the name of Tis-sa-ackr and her husband Nangas.r Learning from other Indians of ther beautiful and fertile Valley of Ahwahnee,r they decided to go therer and make it their dwelling place.r Their journey led them over ruggedr terrain, steep canyons and throughr dense forests. Tis-sa-ack carried onr her back a heavy burden basketr containing acorns and other articles,r as well as a papoose carrier, orr hickey. Nangas followed at a shortr distance carrying his bow, arrowr and a rude staff.r

r After days and days of wearyr traveling, they at last entered ther beautiful Valley of Ahwahnee. Nangasr being tired, hungry and veryr thirsty, lost his temper, and withoutr good reason he struck Tis-sa-ack ar sharp blow across the shoulders withr his staff. Since it was contrary tor custom for an Indian to mistreat hisr wife, Tis-sa-ack became terrified andr ran eastward from her husband.r

r As she went, the Gods lookingr down, caused the path she took tor become the course of a stream, andr the acorns that dropped from herr burden basket to spring up into stalwartr oaks. At length Tis-sa-ackr reached Mirror Lake, and so greatr was her thirst that she drank everyr drop of the cool, quiet water.r

r When Nangas caught up withr Tis-sa-ack, and saw that there was nor water left to quench his thirst, hisr anger knew no bounds, and againr he struck her with his staff. Tis-sa-ackr again ran from him, but he pursuedr her and continued to beat her.r Looking down on them, the Godsr were sorely displeased.r

r “Tis-sa-ack and Nangas haver broken the spell of peace,” theyr said. “Let us transform them intor cliffs of granite that face each other,r so that they will be forever parted.”r

r Tis-sa-ack as she fled tossed asider the heavy burden basket to enabler her to run faster, and landing upsider down it immediately becamer Basket Dome; next she threw the papooser r carrier, or hickey, to the northr wall of the canyon, and it becamer Royal Arches. Nangas was thenr changed into Washington Column,r and Tis-sa-ack into Half Dome. Ther dark streaks that still mar the facer of this stupendous cliff represent ther tears that Tis-sa-ack shed as she ranr from her angry husband.r

r r r r r Half Dome from Glacier Pointr r

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Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

SELECTED REFERENCES

r For those who wish to pursue this subject farther the following selectedr references, most of which contain additional bibliographical material, will ber found to be of considerable assistance.r

r Barrett, S. A. and Gifford, E. W.r Miwok Material Culture.r Milwaukee, Wisconsin.r Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, Vol. 2,r No. 4, 1933; 377 pp., illus.r

r James, George Wharton. Indian Basketry. Pasadena, California. Publishedr by the author, 1901. 238 pp., illus.r

r Kroeber, A. L.r Handbook of the Indians of California.r Smithsonian Institutionr Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 78. Washington, D.C., U. S.r Government Printing Office, 1925. 995 pp., illus.r

r Merrill, Ruth Earl. Plants Used in Basketry By the California Indians.r University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology,r Vol. 20, pp. 215-242; December, 1923.r

r r Russell, C. P. Last of Yosemite Indians Visits Valley After a 75 Year Absence.r Yosemite Nature Notes, Vol. VIII, No. 7; pp. 69-70; July, 1929.r

r Russell, C. P.r r One Hundred Years in Yosemite.r Berkeley and Los Angeles,r 1947. 226 pp., illus.r

r Smith, Bertha H. Yosemite Legends. San Francisco, Calif., Paul Elder & Co.,r 1904; 64 pp., illus.r

r Taylor, Mrs. H. J.r The Last Survivor.r San Francisco, California. Johnck &r Seeger, 1932; 20 pp., illus.r

r r Taylor, Mrs. H. J. Yosemite Indians and Other Sketches.r San Francisco,r California. Johnck & Seeger, 1936; 103 pp., illus.r

r r r r This Publication Publishedr r In Cooperation With The National Park Servicer

r CROWN PRINTING & LITHOGRAPHING CO.r 5r

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Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today (1941) by Elizabeth H. Godfrey

r
• History
r
• Life
r
• Ceremonies and Customs
r
• Indian Legends
r
• Selected References
r

About the Author

r Elizabeth H. “Babs” Godfrey,r a student and writer of Yosemite history.r Her husband was William C. Godfrey.r He wrote and illustratedr “Among the Big Trees in the Mariposa Grove”r forr Yosemite Nature Notes, in 1929.r He transferred to Crater Lake National Park, where her died of exposure Nov. 1929.r She moved back to Yosemite after his death andr worked as secretary for the Yosemite Museum.r Elizabeth Godfrey collected historical material on Yosemite for the Museumr and wrote articles forr Yosemite Nature Notes.r She was transferred to ther National Park Service Region Four Headquarters (San Francisco) in 1945.r She later married a Mr. Baker.r

Bibliographical Information

r Yosemite Indians; Yesterday and Today 1st ed.r by Elibabeth H. Godfrey (b. before 1941 - d. after 1951).r (1941; revised circa 1947-1950).r 28 pages. Illustrated. 24 cm.r Paper wrappers [cover image].r
r r Library of Congress call number E99.Y8 G6 1941.r Originally Published inr Yosemite Nature Notes, 20(7) (1941), pp. 49-72.r Subsequent revisions in 1951 and 1973 were made by othersr (not included here).r Revisions in printings before 1951 were trivialr (removal of foreword, mention of Ta-bu-ce death).r The 1951 and later editions were major rewrites.r

r
• r Original 1941 edition of Yosemite Indians [PDF]r /export/home/dano/htdocs/yosemite/library/yosemite_indiansr
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r Digitized by Dan Anderson, December 2004,r from copies at UCSD and SDSU libraries.r These files may be used for any non-commercial purpose,r provided this notice is left intact.r
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